Fables and Impossibilities

In 1584, Reginald Scot, a little-known English gentleman farmer from Kent, published a work that would shake the foundations of religious and legal authority in Europe. At a time when witch trials were sweeping through Europe, Scot’s book was a rare and radical challenge to the powers that be. This episode brings you the story of Reginald Scot and his The Discoverie of Witchcraft.

Researched, written, and produced by Corinne Wieben with original music by Purple Planet.

Episode sources

Chapters

• 0:00 Pre-roll
• 0:08 Intro
• 2:22 The Gentleman from Kent
• 8:06 Fables and Impossibilities
• 14:06 The King Reacts
• 18:52 Conclusion
• 22:21 Outro

Transcript

Pre-roll
You’re listening to Enchanted, a podcast on the history of magic, sorcery and witchcraft. I’m Corinne Wieben.

Intro
In 1584, Reginald Scot, a little-known English gentleman farmer from Kent, published a work that would shake the foundations of religious and legal authority in Europe: The Discoverie of Witchcraft. At a time when witch trials were sweeping through Europe and fear of witches ran rampant, Scot’s book was a rare and radical challenge to the powers that be. Unlike his contemporaries, who argued for the reality of witchcraft and the necessity of harsh persecution, Scot viewed the witch hunts with deep skepticism. He believed that those accused of witchcraft were often the most vulnerable in society—poor women, the elderly, and the mentally ill—victimized by superstition and the cruelty of their neighbors. Scot’s engagement with the works of contemporary scholars and his humanist education would profoundly shape his views, leading him to question the very foundation of the witch craze.

Sixteenth-century Europe was marked by a constant tension between old beliefs rooted in tradition and the new currents of thought driven by humanism and the burgeoning scientific revolution. At the heart of this intellectual struggle lay a contest for authority—between the mystical and the empirical, between tradition and innovation, between religious dogma and scientific inquiry. This era would reshape Europe’s understanding of the world and its place within it.

In this episode, I bring you the story of Reginald Scot and The Discoverie of Witchcraft.

The Gentleman from Kent
Born around 1538 into a prosperous landowning family in Kent, England, Reginald Scot was afforded an education that would set him apart from many of his peers. He attended Oxford, where he became well-versed in classical languages and the works of humanist scholars, though he left without a degree. After leaving university, Scot settled into the life of a gentleman farmer, but he continued to pursue his wide-ranging interests. Scot’s Kentish upbringing may have shaped his views since Kent, situated near the Continent, was exposed to the intellectual currents of Europe, and Scot had access to a wealth of new ideas. Kent had also seen its share of witch trials. These local trials, combined with the European fervor for witch-hunting, seemed to crystallize Scot’s growing unease with the legal and religious underpinnings of the “witch craze.”

At the heart of Scot’s skepticism was his engagement with the writings of the Dutch physician Johann Weyer, whose 1563 treatise De Praestigiis Daemonum was one of the earliest works to argue that many accused witches were not evil sorcerers but rather people suffering from mental or physical illness. Weyer, trained in medicine under the pioneering physician Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa, argued that belief in witches was misguided and dangerous.

Scot echoed Weyer’s sentiments in The Discoverie of Witchcraft, published in 1584, which denounced the widespread belief in witches and magic as superstitious folly. Scot went further, however, by attacking not only the belief in witches but also the judicial processes that condemned them and the authors of witch-hunting manuals, particularly Jean Bodin, author of On the Demon-Mania of Witches, and the authors of the infamous Malleus Maleficarum, Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger. He was particularly disturbed by the use of torture to extract confessions and the reliance on spectral evidence, which allowed mere accusations, often based on personal vendettas or local gossip, to serve as proof of guilt. He argued that the accused—typically women, the elderly, or the mentally unstable—were scapegoats for disease, crop failure, or unexplained misfortunes.

Scot’s skepticism was deeply informed by the humanist tradition in which he had been educated. With its critical approach to traditional authorities, Renaissance humanism encouraged Scot to question the legitimacy of the witch trials. The humanist reverence for classical texts also influenced Scot’s thinking. In The Discoverie, he frequently cited ancient philosophers and medical writers, including Hippocrates, Galen, and Cicero, to support the idea that belief in witchcraft was a form of ignorance that could be dispelled by rational thought and empirical observation. Scot was particularly appalled by the ways the judicial system preyed on the weak. In his view, the witch hunts reflected a broader societal failure to care for the poor and the marginalized. 

However, traditional beliefs in witchcraft, magic, and astrology held firm in many parts of Europe. The fear of witches, the reading of the stars, and the use of charms to ward off disease were still common. Witch hunts, particularly in places like Germany and Switzerland, reached their peak during the century as social and religious anxieties found an outlet in witchcraft accusations. As late as the 1590s, trials and executions for witchcraft multiplied, particularly in regions destabilized by war, famine, and religious tensions. The intellectual foundation for these beliefs rested largely on medieval cosmology, which posited a universe governed not just by God but by a hierarchy of celestial and infernal forces, with humanity caught in between these spiritual powers.

Yet, even as fear of witchcraft continued to grip many parts of the continent, a new mode of thinking was beginning to take root, one based on direct observation and rational thought. The pioneering works of individuals like Nicolaus Copernicus, who introduced a new understanding of the cosmos in 1543 that would eventually dismantle the medieval view of an Earth-centered universe. In the same year, Andreas Vesalius shattered long-held ancient medical traditions by arguing for direct dissection and anatomical observation. Even alchemists like Paracelsus reimagined alchemy as an early form of chemistry, turning the search for the fabled philosopher’s stone into a precursor to modern pharmacology. However, even as these new approaches took hold, they were often met with skepticism and resistance since they challenged the very foundations of established knowledge.

Fables and Impossibilities
At a time when the fear of witchcraft still gripped much of Europe, Scot stood as a rare voice of skepticism. The Discoverie is a comprehensive assault on the legal and religious frameworks of witchcraft belief, using logic, empirical reasoning, and references to classical sources to dismantle what Scot saw as a deeply unjust system. The Discoverie of Witchcraft is divided into several sections, each addressing different aspects of witchcraft. The book begins with an introduction where Scot lays out his primary argument: that witchcraft, as it was understood in his time, was a baseless superstition perpetuated by ignorance and fear. From there, the work is divided into multiple books, each of which tackles specific aspects of witchcraft belief and prosecution. 

In The Discoverie, Scot critiques the general belief in witches, arguing that much of what is attributed to witchcraft is either natural phenomena or the result of mental illness. He points out the inconsistencies in the testimonies of accused witches and argues that the alleged powers of witches—such as flying, shape-shifting, and summoning storms—are not supported by any rational evidence. Scot systematically debunks each of these claims, suggesting that they stem from fear and ignorance rather than any real supernatural abilities. The final sections of the book deal with what Scot calls “cunning folk” or practitioners of folk magic, who he argues are often falsely accused of witchcraft. Here, Scot emphasizes that many people accused of witchcraft were simply herbalists or healers who were mistaken for witches by those unable to understand the natural world. Throughout The Discoverie, Scot maintains that the fear of witches is not based on any real evidence but is instead a form of mass hysteria fueled by ignorance and religious extremism.

Perhaps the most powerful aspect of The Discoverie of Witchcraft is Scot’s critique of the legal system and its handling of witch trials. He condemns the use of torture to extract confessions, pointing out that people will say anything to stop the pain, including admitting to crimes they did not commit. In a section on witness testimony, he writes, “Excommunicate persons, partakers of the fault, infants, wicked servants, and runaways are to be admitted to bear witness against their dames in this matter of witchcraft… Heretics also and witches shall be received to accuse, but not to excuse a witch. And finally, the testimony of all infamous persons in this case is good and allowed.” Scot also criticizes the use of so-called “spectral evidence”—the claim that a witch’s spirit could harm someone without the witch being physically present—as unreliable and unjust. In addition to his critique of the judicial process, Scot also questions the ethics of those who participate in witch trials, accusing judges and magistrates of being more concerned with securing convictions than with seeking the truth. 

Although he was a Christian, Scot was deeply skeptical of the way religious authorities used the fear of witchcraft. He believed that belief in witches and magic was not only irrational but also contrary to Christian teachings. In The Discoverie, Scot argues that by ascribing supernatural powers to witches, people are essentially elevating the devil to a status equal to that of God, which is, in Scot’s view, heretical. On the allegation that witches create famine, fly, and bring storms, he writes, “Then will I worship them as gods; for those be not the works of man nor yet of witch.” 

In his epilogue, Scot saves his most scathing critique for the authors of witch-hunting manuals, particularly the Malleus Maleficarum, a fifteenth-century work that provided a religious and legal framework for later witch trials. On later writers who expanded on the Malleus, he writes, “In the substance and principal parts whereof I can see no difference among the writers hereupon; of what countries, condition, estate, or religion so ever they be; but I find almost all of them to agree in inconstancy, fables, and impossibilities; scratching out of Malleus Maleficarum the substance of all their arguments: so as their authors being disapproved, they must coin new stuff, or go to their grandams’ maids to learn more old wives tales, whereof this art of witchcraft is contrived.”

Scot’s skepticism is informed by the broader philosophical debates of his time, particularly the humanist tradition. Scot’s humanism is evident in his deep concern for those accused of witchcraft, and his arguments reflect a broader philosophical commitment to the idea that individuals should be treated fairly and humanely, regardless of their social status or perceived abilities. In this sense, The Discoverie of Witchcraft is more than just a critique of witch trials. It is a broader commentary on the need for justice and reason in all aspects of society.

The King Reacts
When The Discoverie of Witchcraft was published in 1584, Reginald Scot could scarcely have imagined the controversy it would ignite. At a time when fear of witches pervaded much of Europe, Scot’s work stood in stark opposition to the prevailing sentiments of his day. While some contemporaries saw it as a reasoned defense of the innocent and an important critique of judicial abuses, others regarded it as dangerously heretical. Over the next several centuries, Scot’s book would influence both the decline of witch hunts and the development of skepticism in England and beyond. Yet, the work was not without its critics, and Scot’s radical ideas would provoke responses from powerful figures. 

The reception of The Discoverie was particularly hostile among religious leaders, who viewed the book as undermining the biblical and theological foundation of witch trials. For many clergymen, belief in witches was inseparable from belief in the devil, and Scot’s denial of witches’ supernatural powers was seen as an implicit challenge to the Church’s authority to combat heresy. Protestant preachers, in particular, took issue with Scot’s suggestion that witchcraft was a superstition rather than a genuine manifestation of diabolical influence. Above all, they feared that Scot’s arguments would encourage skepticism not just of witches but of religion itself.

Legal authorities were similarly critical. Witch trials were a significant part of the legal landscape in England and Scotland, and Scot’s argument that these trials were based on faulty evidence and irrational fear threatened to undermine the legitimacy of the courts. Many judges and magistrates saw the persecution of witches as a necessary defense against moral and spiritual corruption, and they regarded Scot’s critique of their methods as an attack on their professional integrity.

One of the most prominent and vocal critics of Scot’s ideas was King James VI of Scotland (later James I of England), a staunch believer in witchcraft who had overseen numerous witch trials in his own realm, including the infamous North Berwick witch trials. In 1597, James published Daemonologie, a direct response to Scot’s book, in which he passionately defended the reality of witches and the need for their prosecution. James was deeply disturbed by Scot’s suggestion that belief in witches was based on ignorance and superstition. In Daemonologie, James argued that witches were not merely the product of imagination or mental illness, as Scot had suggested, but real servants of the devil who posed a direct threat to Christian society. He dismissed Scot’s reliance on classical sources, arguing that the authority of the Bible and Church tradition far outweighed pagan philosophers. James also rejected Scot’s claims that the judicial process was flawed, insisting that the methods used to convict witches were justified by the seriousness of their crimes.

Scot’s work also faced criticism from other scholars who, while not as fervently opposed to his ideas as King James, still questioned his conclusions. Some argued that Scot’s reliance on empirical evidence and logic failed to account for the spiritual dimension of witchcraft, which, they argued, was beyond the reach of human reason. Others criticized Scot for being too dismissive of the folk beliefs and practices that they saw as an essential part of English culture.

Yet, Scot’s work had some defenders. Some intellectuals and members of the emerging scientific community saw The Discoverie as a courageous stand against ignorance. Scholars who were sympathetic to the humanist tradition appreciated Scot’s appeal to reason and his use of classical sources to debunk the popular myths surrounding witchcraft. These supporters recognized that Scot was advocating for a more empirical, rational approach to understanding the natural world, one that rejected the supernatural explanations of the past.

Conclusion
The intellectual developments of the sixteenth century were, in many ways, contradictory. On one hand, the period witnessed the persistence of superstition and religious fervor. On the other, it experienced the early rumblings of the scientific revolution and the flourishing of humanist thought. As Europe moved into the seventeenth century, the intellectual legacy of the sixteenth became clear. The scientific revolution, the humanist movement, and the Reformation had collectively undermined traditional sources of authority. The tension between superstition and reason, between religious dogma and scientific inquiry, would continue to shape European thought in the centuries to come. The sixteenth century, with all its contradictions, laid the foundation for modernity, sparking a revolution in the way humanity viewed the world, themselves, and the divine.

Scot’s work would have a lasting influence on the intellectual climate of Europe. His skepticism toward witchcraft, rooted in both humanism and contemporary scholarship, would later be taken up by Enlightenment thinkers who questioned the irrationality of witch hunts and sought to base their understanding of the world on reason and empirical evidence. Although witch trials continued for several decades after Scot’s death, the number of prosecutions gradually declined. By the late seventeenth century, the tide had begun to turn against witch hunts as more and more legal reformers pushed for greater rigor in the courts and the protection of the accused from baseless charges.

Enlightenment thinkers, such as John Locke and Voltaire, echoed many of Scot’s arguments in their own critiques of irrational belief systems. Locke, in particular, adopted Scot’s emphasis on the need for evidence and reason in the courtroom, and Voltaire’s scorn for religious persecution can be seen as part of the intellectual legacy that Scot helped to initiate. By the time of the Salem witch trials in the late seventeenth century, Scot’s ideas had crossed the Atlantic, and some of the trial’s critics, such as Increase Mather, argued against spectral evidence in much the same way that Scot had. In this way, Scot was a forerunner of modern skepticism, challenging the belief in witches and the human tendency to scapegoat the weak and vulnerable in times of fear and uncertainty.

Reginald Scot’s The Discoverie of Witchcraft is a remarkable testament to reason, justice, and compassion in an age of fear. Though his views were out of step with his time, Scot’s legacy is a beacon of skepticism and intellectual courage, reminding us of the dangers of allowing fear to triumph over reason and humanity.

Outro
If you enjoyed this episode, you can subscribe to Enchanted wherever you listen. This episode was produced by me with original music by Purple Planet. You can find them at purple dash planet dot com. If you want to learn more about Reginald Scot and The Discoverie of Witchcraft, be sure to check out the sources link in the show notes. Special thanks to Enchanted’s Patreon patrons for supporting the production of this and every episode. If you want to support Enchanted, please visit patreon dot com slash enchantedpodcast. If you’re looking for a way to support the show that won’t cost you anything, you can always give Enchanted: The History of Magic & Witchcraft a five-star rating on Apple Podcasts, Podchaser, Audible, or wherever you listen and recommend it to your friends. You can get in touch with me via email at enchantedpodcast at gmail dot com or follow on Facebook, Instagram, and Tumblr at enchantedpodcast. As always, for more information and special features, visit enchantedpodcast dot net. I’m Corinne Wieben. Thank you for listening and stay enchanted.